Pottery Production at Pachacamac: The Coiling Technique

Introduction

Throughout the years of civilization, people have turned the necessity of eating into a cultural event. From feasts at social gatherings to dinner with the family, food has become an integral aspect of society. The place, quality, and type of food being eaten are also indicators of economic status. Those with money to spare eat hundred-dollar dinners, while those barely scraping by dine on fast food. The same can be said of food vessels. While critical to the cooking, storage, and serving of food, food vessels also reflect the customer’s socioeconomic status. Pristine white china holds expensive caviar, but grease laden cardboard holds a meal off the dollar menu at McDonald’s. Today, food vessels are composed of different materials, displaying an obvious difference in the corresponding socioeconomic status. However, in the past, people had not yet discovered the cheap convenience of paper and plastic food vessels. Instead, they relied on pottery.

The Inca Empire is a prime example of a past civilization that extensively used pottery in almost every aspect of preparing and presenting meals. Rising in the 15th century, the Inca Empire expanded across most of western South America, including parts of present-day Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina (Covey 2008). The Empire consisted of many smaller tribes, conquered and brought together under one elite ruling class (Covey 2008; Hayashida 1998). These conquered peoples worked for the Inca ruling class, cultivating fields and completing public works projects (Hayashida 1998; Bray 2009). In return, the ruling elite provided the workers with raw materials, tools, food, and drink (Bray 2009). Thus, the Inca Empire was a melting pot of many longstanding cultures and civilizations in the Andes. Today, descendant communities such as the Aymara of Chucuito (Tschopik 1950) and the Quechua of Raqch’i (Chávez 1984) carry on the traditions and techniques used by their ancestors during the time of Inca reign. Excavations of Inca sites unearthed large quantities of imperial Inca jar and plate fragments, providing evidence of pottery’s large-scale use throughout the empire (Bray 2003). Feasting was a key component of Inca statecraft, and pottery played an important role in providing people with vessels they could use to cook food, store food, and serve food (Bray 2003; Chávez 1984; Hayashida 1999). Thus, pottery was critical to the many social and political gatherings held throughout the empire.

While originally stemming from need, pottery slowly evolved to be representative of social status (Bray 2003). Inca pottery is distinctive, characterized by a highly recognizable standardized style and design, with only seven basic forms found throughout the empire (Hayashida 1999; Hayashida 1998; Bray 2009). The Inca’s distinctive style was further subdivided based on social class – the pottery used by the Inca ruling elite was different from pottery used by commoners (Hayashida 1999; Hayashida 1998). Archaeologists interpret this designation of particular ceramic ensembles to each social class as a conscious strategy of the Inca elite to illustrate and label those belonging in each social class with an identifiable style (Bray 2003). As a result, pottery was important to the Inca Empire because of its extensive use and its far-reaching implications.

During the Inca reign, pottery making was one of the jobs completed by conquered peoples. Potters from across the empire were permanently assigned to settlements where they produced ceramic pieces year-round for the Inca ruling elite (Hayashida 1998). Pottery production was constructed and distributed at a regional level, and the goal of producing pottery was to fill state warehouses and to provision state personnel (Hayashida 1998). As a result, the Inca Empire efficiently mass produced the pottery needed to sustain the cultural role pottery played in the Inca Empire. To do this, the Inca ruling elite had to create a complex economic system, providing raw materials, tools, food, and drink in return for labor (Bray 2009; Hayashida 1998). The ruling elite also had to create a system for distribution and a system designating the appropriate use of certain vessels to establish the complex social hierarchy that was illustrated by the pottery.

Inca Pottery

Inca and most Andean pottery was produced using two main techniques: press-molding and coiling (Donnan 1992; Chávez 1984). The press-molding technique is when potters press moist clay into press molds to achieve a desired shape (Sinopoli 1991; Donnan 1992). Press molds were permanent forms made of clay that were constructed by pushing soft clay around an object and letting the clay dry in that position (Donnan 1992). The result was either a single or two-piece mold that could be used again and again to produce many pieces of the same form (Figure 1) (Donnan 1992). The coiling technique relies on long ropes of clay, thinned to about the width of a sausage, to construct the desired shape of the vessel (Sinopoli 1991; Gibson and Woods 1997; Donnan 1992; Tschopik 1950). After a circular, flat base is formed, the clay ropes are stacked one on top of the other to create the vessel’s shape (Figure 2) (Gibson and Woods 1997; Donnan 1992; Chávez 1984). Depending on the vessel, the potter then goes back and forth between smoothing the interior of the vessel to adding more coils to smoothing the interior until the vessel’s body has been completed (Donnan 1992; Chávez 1984; Tschopik 1950). Finally, the potter goes through several exterior smoothing processes to create a surface completely devoid of bumps or irregularities (Chávez 1984; Tschopik 1950; Gibson and Woods 1997; Sinopoli 1991).

Typically, the press-molding and the coiling techniques were used separately. Press-molding was often used for smaller, more ornately decorate pieces, while coiling was used for large, flat-based vessels (Donnan 1992; Chávez 1984). However, coiling was also used in tandem with press-molding to produce particular forms (Donnan 1992). The large chicha production vessels of Inca breweries and regular cooking vessels found in most Inca kitchens were rarely decorated nor modeled with complex designs, so they were often constructed using the coiling technique (Chávez 1984; Donnan 1992; Bray 2003).

The Goal of My Project

Within the scope of Inca pottery, I decided to focus my final project on the coiling technique. In high school, I took a ceramics class and used the modern coiling technique to construct many vessels, so I was interested to see how the modern process compared to the process potters used in the Inca Empire. As a result, I wanted to capture the step by step process illustrating a potter constructing a vessel using the coiling technique, from collecting clay in a riverbank to the final, polished product.

After researching Inca pottery, I found that chicha production was a critical process in countless social and religious gatherings that relied heavily on pottery for its production. Chicha was a maize beer served in large quantities at any major event (Bray 2009; Bray 2003; Chávez 1984). Thus, chicha was constantly in high demand, as were the ceramic pieces required to make it (Bray 2003; Chávez 1984). Due to its importance in Inca culture, I decided to look further into pottery specifically used in chicha production. I looked at the well-known Inca jar used for chicha storage called the aríbalo (Bray 2009). However, the bottom of the aríbalo jar tapers into a conical base, and due to the nature of the coiling technique, coil-built pottery has flat bases (Chávez 1984; Bray 2009). Continuing my search, I finally settled on a vessel known as the raki (Figure 3). A raki is a large, wide-mouthed container with a flaring neck and two vertical handles; the raki’s base is around 15-20 cm in diameter, but at its widest, the vessel’s diameter is about 55-60 cm (Chávez 1984). The jar is primarily used to ferment and to store chicha (Chávez 1984). While the raki is integral to the complex chicha production process, my project will focus on the construction of a raki vessel rather than its applications or its intended use.

Using Maya, I wanted to model the entire process of constructing a raki vessel from clay collection to final product. Given the time restraint, I had to modify my original goal. I was only able to model part of the entire process, capturing clay collection, clay preparation, and the construction of a raki vessel. The final step that I modeled was a fully constructed raki vessel ready to be fired.

Construction of the Raki Vessel

I modeled the coiling technique by researching the process of Inca descendants living in Raqch’i and Chucuito documented by Chávez (1984) and Tschopik (1950). Although archaeologists do not have records of how exactly Inca potters constructed vessels using the coiling technique, the process is probably similar to the process of Inca descendants, as the techniques were likely passed down from generation to generation. Assuming a degree of analogy between the past and present, I relied on the processes of Chucuito and Raqch’i potters to model the construction of a raki vessel.

The raki vessel can be broken down into three component parts: the teqsi, the kupu, and the kunka (Figure 4) (Chávez 1984). The teqsi is the lower body of the raki vessel, composed of three to four coils of clay (Chávez 1984). The kupu, also known as the upper body of the raki vessel, is composed of seven coils of clay and makes up the majority of the vessel (Chávez 1984). Finally, the kunka is the raki vessel’s neck, composed of two clay coils (Chávez 1984). The raki vessel’s construction is broken down into steps according to the three component parts of the vessel.

The construction of a raki vessel also requires many tools. First and foremost, the vessel is constructed on a flat stone slab that serves as a work surface (Tschopik 1950). The potters also use ceramic turntables or ceramic plates to serve as a base on which they can assemble the raki’s coils (Tschopik 1950; Chávez 1984). Many tools are needed for the interior and exterior smoothing of the vessel. Chawinas are used by the Raqch’i to smooth the raki vessel’s interior (Figure 5) (Chávez 1984). While all formed from porous volcanic rock, differently shaped chawinas are used for the teqsi and the kupu (Figure 6) (Chávez 1984). K’isunas are another tool used to initially smooth the vessel’s exterior (Figure 7) (Chávez 1984). The Raqch’i use metal k’isunas, and they use the k’isuna’s curved end to more easily scrape clay from the furthest extension of the coil into the space between coils to create an even surface (Chávez 1984). For the second exterior smoothing process, a tool known as the qaruna is used (Figure 8) (Chávez 1984). The qaruna, like the chawina, is made from volcanic rock, and the tool gets rid of the major bumps created by the k’isuna on the vessel’s exterior (Chávez 1984). In the final exterior smoothing process, the Raqch’i used a tool made from fine-grained rock called a llamp’uña to create a particularly smooth finish without any bumps or irregularities (Figure 9).

To construct a raki vessel, the potter first needs to harvest clay from a local riverbank (Chávez 1984; Tschopik 1950). The clay is then transported back to the potter’s house, where the potter mixes and kneads the clay with his feet on a cloth poncho or an animal hide (Figure 10) (Chávez 1984; Tschopik 1950). Once the clay is properly mixed, the potter rolls the clay into coils (Figure 11) (Chávez 1984; Tschopik 1950). Next, the potter begins to construct the raki vessel, starting with the teqsi (Chávez 1984). The required three to four coils are first stacked in succession to create the desired shape, and then, the interior of the vessel is smoothed with the chawina shaped to smooth the teqsi. The process is repeated to create the kupu. However, in this step, seven coils are stacked to create the kupu, and the interior is smoothed using the chawina shaped to smooth the kupu. After the kupu’s interior is completely smoothed, the potter uses the k’isuna to complete the raki vessel’s initial exterior smoothing. Then, the qaruna is used to complete the secondary exterior smoothing. After the first and second exterior smoothing, the potter constructs the kunka. Each of the two coils needed to complete the kunka are added and smoothed before moving on to the next coil. Once the kunka is constructed, the potter adds two handles to the raki vessel’s body. Finally, the exterior is smoothed one last time before firing, using the llamp’uña to give the raki vessel a smooth, polished look.

After the final smoothing, the raki vessel is slipped, which means that pigment is applied to the clay with a cloth or animal hide (Tschopik 1950). Then, the vessel is fired (Chávez 1984; Tschopik 1950). Firing typically takes place in a shallow pit outside of the potter’s house (Tschopik 1950). The pit is filled with many vessels and covered by fuel – typically dried animal dung or a dry wood kindling (Chávez 1984; Tschopik 1950). Once fired and cooled, the raki is then removed from the firing pit and painted accordingly (Chávez 1984; Tschopik 1950).

Modeling the Coiling Technique

When staring my modeling, I struggled. Modeling a pottery vessel and a canoe in our weekly labs was easy when I had someone to walk me through every step. for this project, I was on my own and had to figure out many of Maya’s basic functions. I first broke down my modeling into three different files to represent the three different scenes: 1) a river landscape for clay collection, 2) a space to knead and mix the clay, and 3) a space to construct the raki vessel.

I started with the river scene. I used a photograph of the Vilcanota River as a reference photograph because the river was mentioned in my readings (Figure 12) (Chávez 1984). In my first attempt to model the river scene, I tried an online tutorial with little success. After testing some of the features in Maya, I discovered an easier way to create the water surface by using a 2D square polygon surface instead of a NURBS surface and produced a better result. I edited the transparency and the texture of the surface to produce the water-like surface (Figure 13). Once the landscape was set, I added a person to my scene. Although Inca men typically used the coiling technique to create pottery, I placed a female model in my scene as a place holder because we had not received the male models at this point. I positioned the model by rotating the model’s joints so that she was digging clay from the riverbank. I then added a pottery vessel to the scene, so she had something to transport the clay (Figure 14). Finally, I added another female model to the scene to illustrate the transport of clay from riverbank to house (Figure 15). However, after listening to in class presentations of Final Projects and receiving suggestions from Dr. Erickson, I decided to redo my scene. First, I replaced the female model for the male model and the pot for clay collection with a carrying cloth. Dr. Erickson also brought to my attention that I was using the wrong river as a reference. Instead of the Vilcanota River, I should use the Lurín River. Based on an image of the Lurín River taken from Google Earth (Figure 16), I straightened out the riverbank and lightened the mud color to better match the reference photograph, creating my final river scenes (Figures 17-18).

After addressing the river scene, I began to model the space needed to knead and mix the clay. First, I modeled a cowhide, using a reference photograph that was imported into Maya and scaled (Figure 19). I created the shape by transforming the vertices of a 2D circular polygon surface (Figure 20). Once I had modeled the basic shape of the cowhide, I added a cowhide pattern to the object. Then, I created an earthen floor to represent the workspace of the potter. Finally, I placed the cowhide on the floor with a female model to show how the potter would mixing the clay (Figure 21). After the in-class presentations, I replaced the female model with a male model. I also replaced the cowhide for a reed mat based on Dr. Erickson’s advice. I constructed the reed mat by creating multiple cylinders and stacking them next to each other (Figure 22) to create the final version of the scene (Figure 23).

My next task was modeling the construction of the raki vessel. First, I modeled the process of forming coils. I created the coils by scaling cylindrical polygons and placed them on a flat table-like surface for the potter to work on. Then, I positioned the female model to appear as though she was rolling out the coils (Figure 24). The next step in the construction process is stacking the coils, so I created placed coils using the torus polygon shape, scaling and transforming the shapes so that, when combined, they looked like the base of a raki vessel. Figure 25 shows a female model placing a coil on a half-completed teqsi, and Figure 26 shows what the coil looks like after being placed. However, after receiving critique from Dr. Erickson, I realized my model was lacking detail based in archaeological data. Thus, for this part of the modeling process, I decided to redo the scene that depicts raki construction.

First, I modeled each of the tools that the potter needs to construct a raki vessel. I started with the ceramic plate, importing a reference photograph from Chávez (1984) (Figure 27) into Maya to use as an outline for the Bezier Curve Tool. I then revolved the outline I had created, forming a fully shaped ceramic plate (Figure 28). After completing the plate, I modeled a llamp’uña. Using a reference photograph (Figure 29), I transformed the vertices of a 2D shape to match the outline of the photograph. Then, I extruded the shape to produce a 3D polygon. I added edge loops to my 3D rectangular polygon shape and transformed the vertices to mirror the tool’s correct shape. At this point, I attempted to apply a color and texture to the llamp’uña. Despite trying many times, the surface remained black (Figure 30). After some research, I realized that through extruding the 2D shape, I had inverted the surface so that the polygon’s faces were inside out. Using the Reverse Normals tool, I reversed the direction of all the faces on my polygon so that the surface was facing outwards. Then, I could apply colors and textures without a problem. I then used the Smooth tool to smooth the hard edges and applied the correct pattern and texture to the object, creating the finished llamp’uña (Figure 31). Next, I modeled the qaruna using the same technique I used for the llamp’uña. After importing a reference photograph (Figure 32), I transformed the vertices of a 3D rectangular polygon (Figure 33) to achieve the desired shape (Figure 34). I then moved on to model the k’isuna. Once again, I used a reference photograph (Figure 35) and transformed the vertices of a 3D rectangular polygon to align with the shape of the k’isuna (Figure 36). Using the Rotation tool, I curved the end of the k’isuna as indicated by the reference photograph (Figure 37). Finally, I used the Smooth tool to smooth the edges, and I textured the object to match its description in the texts (Figure 38). The last two tools I had to model were the chawinas: one for the lower body of the raki and one for the upper body of the raki. I first imported the chawina reference photograph into Maya, which I displays both types of chawinas side by side (Figure 39). I then transformed the vertices of the original 3D polygon to match the reference photograph for each chawina to create a final teqsi chawina (Figure 40) and a final kupu chawina (Figure 41).

After modeling the tools, I moved on to modeling the scene in which the tools would be used. For the background of my scene, I created a basic earthen floor to represent that of a potter’s house. I then imported a free online model of a flat rock to serve as the potter’s worktable (Figure 42). Once the background scene was created, I started to form each individual step in the construction of the raki vessel.

First, I modeled the coil making process. Using 3D cylindrical polygons, I modeled the thirteen coils needed to make a raki vessel. I also positioned the male model by rotating its joints so that the model looks like he is in the process of rolling out a coil of clay (Figure 43).

Then, I modeled the construction of the teqsi. I used the torus polygon shape to model the four placed coils that create the teqsi (Figure 44). I then imported the teqsi and the ceramic plate into the scene to illustrate teqsi construction. However, I also wanted to illustrate the placement of successive coils. In a different part of the scene, I placed the male model to look like he is placing the fourth coil on top of a half-completed teqsi. Using the Extrude tool, I transformed one of the coils to curve around the potter’s hands. Then, I used to smooth tool to smooth over any rough edges, creating the final scene (Figure 45). Once the final coil was put in place on the vessel rim, the teqsi was complete (Figure 46).

After the coils of the teqsi are placed, the interior is smoothed using a chawina designed for the size and shape of the teqsi. To create the background setting of this step, I copied and pasted the rock, the ceramic plate, the coils, and the teqsi and transformed them next to the first step I had modeled. Then, I imported the teqsi chawina and the male model and positioned both to illustrate the potter smoothing the teqsi’s interior (Figure 47).

Returning to the file where I created the teqsi, I constructed the kupu by adding more torus polygons in the shape of the raki reference photograph. Then, I combined the coiled kupu and teqsi to create a single object and imported the object into my scene (Figure 48).

Next, I modeled the smoothing of the kupu’s interior by importing the kupu chawina into the scene and positioning the male model accordingly (Figure 49).

Then, I moved to the exterior smoothing process. I imported the k’isuna and the male model to illustrate the initial smoothing process. Using the Bezier curve tool, I traced the edge of the raki from the base to the top of the kupu, following the raki vessel reference photograph. Then, I used the Revolve tool to create the full vessel. I imported the object into my scene, showing a halfway smoothed raki (Figure 50) and a fully smoothed raki (Figure 51). I copied and pasted the raki vessel and changed the texture to show the second round of smoothing with the qaruna (Figure 52).

The next step was to add the handles and the neck to the raki vessel. To illustrate this step, I returned to the raki vessel reference photograph, and I reconstructed the vessel from scratch, this time including the neck. Using the Bezier curve tool, I traced the edge of the object and then revolved the curve to create the full raki vessel. Then, I converted the revolved surface to a polygon to create the handles of the vessel. I started with one handle, extruding a single face of the pot to curve around the shape of the handle. Next, I deleted the face opposite of the end of the handle, and I target welded the handle to the body of the pot. I also used the Smooth tool to smooth the harsh edges that extruding left on the handle. Then, I imported this raki, with one handle, to my scene to illustrate the male model placing a handle on the pot. With one handle already put into place, I created another piece of clay and positioned the male model to be in the process of adhering the second handle to the vessel (Figure 53). Then, I went back to my raki construction file and deleted the half of my vessel with no handle. I then mirrored the half with a handle to create an entire raki vessel with two handles. Once I had created the full vessel, I imported it back into my scene, creating a fully constructed raki.

To illustrate the final step before the pot would be fired, I imported the llamp’uña and positioned the male model to show the final smoothing of the raki vessel’s exterior (Figure 54). Finally, I removed the male model to highlight the final, completely smoothed raki (Figure 55).

Even though I was unable to model the entire process per my original intention, I am happy with what I produced. My final project’s focus was specifically the coiling technique, and my project adequately portrays that process.

Conclusion

Although not perfect, my project captures the steps that potters of the Inca Empire followed to create a raki vessel using the coiling technique. I was unable to model the firing and slipping process, but I still managed to capture the key components of the coiling technique. Given more time, I would have modeled a firing pit full of pots and fuel for the kiln. I would also model the slipping process to include the iconic colors and designs that make Inca pottery distinctive. My project could benefit from combining elements of the relevant projects of other students. I spent most of my time modeling the details of the clay, potter’s tools, and proper positioning of the 3D human. However, the potter’s context and the pottery model lacks the complete look of a full 3D immersion. My models could be placed outside a typical house constructed by another student as assets to populate the structure and provide a better context.

Pottery played an important role in the politics, culture, and social hierarchy of the Inca Empire, but most importantly, pottery was the primary means of cooking, storing, and serving food. While people today use metal, plastics, and paper, ceramics are present in almost every kitchen from ornately decorated dinner plates to simple white coffee mugs. Civilization has placed a heavy emphasis on the importance of meals, turning the necessity of eating into a social event. Pottery, because of its connection with food and drink, represents an integral aspect of society and of community, bringing people together for centuries.

References Cited